The Fundamentals of Defensive Architecture

[LuxyLucy 691]

 

 

ISSUED BY

Linde Illena Kovachev.

 

⸙

 

ISSUED ON

Thirteenth of Joma Ag Umund , 592 E.S.

 

VA VE EDLERVIK,

CASTLES AND OTHER FORTIFICATIONS HAVE EVOLVED TOGETHER WITH SOCIETY AND TECHNOLOGY. Our cultures have made prodigious advances in the evolution and construction of castles and other defenses. The stone castle is the prominent feature of our landscape, only overshadowed by the great cathedrals. The castle is a symbol of status for many powerful nobles who could then challenge the authority of their king. As the castle’s role and function have changed, so have their sizes and shapes. Stone castles have emerged as the dominant fortification along with the fortified city with their masonry defenses. Though, it’s not to say the more ancient type of earth and timber fortification known as the grod has gone extinct. They continue to dominate in the forms of small strongpoints and fortified towns.

Understanding the distribution of population and its relationship to the size of armies is quite important not only in understanding warfare, but also the role and significance of external threats that exert strong influence on the course of events and development of fortifications. The cannon for instance has not made castles obsolete, but has caused the reduction in the height of walls, not only to reduce their vulnerability, but also to increase the range and effectiveness of the defenders’ artillery.

 

 

THE TERMS CASTLE, CITADEL, FORT, AND FORTRESS HAVE BEEN USED SYNONYMOUSLY WITH STRONGHOLD. Which has led to much confusion over time. Each, however, should have its own meaning in military architecture. Although the castle is considered a private fortified residence, the term is not used in the same way in every region of Aevos, or in the same context with royal castles. The most accurate definition of a castle would be a fortification that is characterized by high walls, usually a moat, and towers, regardless of whether it was a private residence or not. The term fort does not strictly apply to most fortifications since it refers to a small strongpoint usually occupied by military personnel. The typical castle, on the other hand, has not only a military function but also a residential and/or administrative function. The word citadel applies to any strongpoint and can be used to refer to a castle or a section of city that has a fortified position similar to a castle in size.

 

Although fortress is a term that is usually reserved for large fortifications that wouldn’t be classified as a castle, sometimes it can refer to a very large castle-like fortification or a heavily fortified city (town). The fortified city or town usually has many features in common with the castle, but it is larger and may also include a castle, especially if it is a city rather than a town. Many features such as gatehouses, special roofs, crenelations, and moats, which were initially developed for castles, have been incorporated in urban fortifications as well. Other types of fortified positions include tower houses, observation posts, and coastal fortifications, as well as fortified churches, cathedrals, and monasteries. Often these positions incorporate the defensive features found in castles and fortified towns. The tower house is simply a residential structure attached to or part of a tower and is somewhat similar to a keep. Observation posts, including those used along the coast, are similar to bergfrieds or keeps but are usually a solitary tower from which a watchman can sound the alarm as soon as he spots intruders. Fortified religious structures look like their unfortified counterparts, but comprise defensive positions like turrets, crenelations, and even murder holes. The fortified monasteries sometimes look like a small fortified town.

 

The origins of the castle are lost in the mists of time, but can be traced to three main types of early fortifications: the grod, the bergfried, and the motte and bailey. The most ancient of them, the grod, was essentially a ring fortification that varies in size and consists of an earthen rampart, wooden walls, a fortified gate, and a moat. The bergfrieds are tall towers that are mostly made of wood and are tall and narrow. They serve as little more than lookout towers, but some may serve as residences. Though some have been made out of masonry, they’re an incorporated part of castles rather than standalone structures. The motte and bailey castle, which may have evolved from earlier ring works akin to the grod. Consist of a wooden tower or donjon standing atop of a manmade mound or motte. The motte is located within a courtyard or bailey encircled by a timber palisade with a fortified gate. Whenever the terrain allows it, the bailey, also known as the ward, was circular. More complicated versions of the motte and bailey include two or more baileys. Though eventually with further innovations in masonry work, stone began to replace the timber as a building material. At first, only the donjon was made of stone. Later the gatehouse and finally the walls were also made of masonry. The donjon, which later became known as the keep, was not only a defensive position, but also served as the residence of the local lord or castellan. The entrances to the keep and the bergfried are placed on the floor above the ground floor. The wooden keeps are built on manmade mounds or mottes for defensive reasons and serve as the point of last resistance in the motte and bailey castle. As they became larger and heavier when stone was used, the motte became less practical and was eventually eliminated. In time, many of the larger keeps were incorporated in the main line of defense, after which they were eliminated altogether. 

 

In the grod and the motte and bailey castle, towers were at first made of wood and either attached to or part of the timber stockade atop an earthen rampart. The rampart was made of soil excavated from the moat. After stone and brick were adopted as building materials for the keeps and gatehouses, the towers too were made of masonry. The towers can be an integral part of the wall or separate entities to which the walls are attached. In some cases, they project out from the wall, allowing the defenders to cover the curtain walls with flanking fire (and are commonly known as flanking towers). When built of stone or brick they usually have several floors, which are not always connected internally. In some cases, the back of the tower is left open to make it easier to haul up supplies and projectiles from the ground level to the fighting platforms above. In addition, the open back prevents the enemy from taking the tower and using it against the defenders. In some cases, access to the tower from the wall walk or allure is only possible over a small drawbridge. The square shape creates dead angles on the outside, making towers vulnerable to mining. So architects introduced a circular or semicircular pattern to remedy this problem. The spacing of towers along the walls of a castle or a city depends on various factors such as terrain and resources available to the builder. In most cases, towers are placed at the corners but sometimes are also added at regular or irregular intervals along the perimeter. The construction of towers does not follow any standard pattern. The size and shape of towers vary considerably, depending on the designer’s vision and financial means. Another important feature adopted at the same time as the round tower is the plinth or thickening and outward sloping of the walls at the base of the tower. The function of the plinth or battered plinth is to add stability to the tower wall and make it more resistant to mining. Eventually the plinth was also adapted to walls.

 

The gate is one of the most critical parts of the defenses of a castle or fortified city since it is theoretically the easiest point of entry which allows access to the interior. Special attention was therefore devoted to its defense and additional obstacles were placed in front of it. Not unexpectedly, the first type of towers built into walls were gatehouses. In the motte and bailey castle, the gatehouse and the keep are the first positions to be made of masonry. The gatehouse normally consists of battlements from which the defenders could keep the enemy away from the gate. As the gatehouses became more sophisticated, various additional defenses such as moats and drawbridges were added. However, where there is no moat, there is no drawbridge. This is mostly the case for interior gatehouses. Drawbridges usually are simply structures that are raised by means of chains and winches. More refined versions are called a turning bridge, which is raised by means of a counterweight attached to the end of the bridge. When the weighted end is released, it drops into a pit moving the other end of the bridge to a ninety degree angle. This mechanism is not only faster to operate, but requires less effort. Whether there is a drawbridge or not, the gatehouses include a set of heavy wooden and metal reinforced doors and a portcullis, a wood, iron, or, more commonly, iron-shod wood grating. The portcullis is positioned in grooves in the wall and lowered or dropped down from above with the help of a winch. As gatehouses became more sophisticated, they also grew in size, becoming the dominant position in the castle in some cases. Often, the approaches and entrance to the gatehouse are placed at an angle so as not to face outward, thus making it more difficult for attackers to maneuver their weapons directly against the drawbridge or gate. This type of arrangement is particularly effective against the ram. Eventually, an outwork or barbican is added in front of the gatehouse for extra protection. The barbican has no standard shape. Some barbicans are directly linked to the gatehouse by walls, forcing the attacker into a narrow, easily defended passage before he could reach the gate. In many cases barbicans are linked to the gatehouse only by a bridge. Most barbicans display the defensive features typical of the gatehouse. In addition to a gatehouse it is quite common for fortified cities and castles to have posterns. These are relatively small entrances only large enough for a knight and his horse to pass through. Posterns serve as exits from which the garrison can launch a sortie, as escape routes for the defenders, or as places from which to dispatch messengers. The postern is also known as a sally port. Some posterns are heavily defended and placed in a mural tower. The postern is usually, but not always, located beyond the reach of siege weapons.

 

The term enceinte refers to the walls and towers that encircle a fortified position, be it a castle, fortified city, or fortified monastery. The curtain refers to sections of wall between towers or the walls of the enceinte. It is quite possible that the early stockades that surround a stronghold are not equipped with fighting positions and that they rely on the towers for their defense. However, before long they have become an active part of the defense of the castle. The walls are the last elements of the fortified positions to be converted to masonry. There is no systematic study on the thickness of curtain walls, however, it is a fact that their thickness varies from one fortification to another. The techniques used in the construction of the earth and wood fortifications before the introduction of masonry produced exceptionally thick walls. The timber palisades, on the other hand, are rather thin and vulnerable to fire and decay. The first stone or brick walls that replaced the timber palisades, though more durable, are rather thin. While larger cities expand their walls to protect their populations, smaller ones, especially if they are townships, are not always able to afford new walls and go without, unless the sovereign believes it necessary to fortify them for strategic reasons. Auvergnian buttresses, known as contreforts in Auvergnians, are used to reinforce the walls. The walls of the keeps and the enceinte are built to accommodate the installation of wooden hoardings from which the defenders are able to cover the foot of the wall. The thickness of curtain walls varies according to need. Thus the more vulnerable wall sections are thickest, while those protected by natural features of the terrain are thinner. The walls of keeps vary between one point five and two meters in thickness, although some are as thick as four meters. Further innovations in military architecture include the machicoulis, the plinth, and the regular spacing of towers. The art of building stone machicoulis or machicolations onto masonry walls makes it possible to replace the wooden hoardings, which are very vulnerable to fire. The plinth, an outward splaying of the base of the walls, serves as an effective defense against mining. The plinth also maximizes the effects of the projectiles dropped from the hoardings or machicoulis. The regular spacing of the towers on the enceinte increases the effectiveness of the defenses. In our current era, we’re experiencing what may be the zenith of the age of the castle. As with further innovations in pyrotechnics such as the cannon, may in time make our castles obsolete in the fashion of war. The walls of the enceintes have become thicker, and the plinth is much more common throughout Aevos. Moats have grown to twelve to twenty meters in width and ten meters in depth. Vaulted towers range from seven to twelve meters in diameter. Castles reach unprecedented sizes.

 

The battlements refer to the upper part of a fortified position. They are usually crenelated to protect the defenders from enemy missiles. Crenelations consist of a succession of openings called embrasures and small sections of wall called merlons. The simplest, and earliest merlons and embrasures were rectangular in shape. However, many variations soon appeared, reflecting regional and ethnic tastes, converting the crenelations into a decorative feature. It is not uncommon to see unusually high or curved merlons. Crenelations on the older wooden fortifications are rectangular in shape. The embrasures between merlons sometimes include shutters to give the defenders added protection. With the trend toward building masonry fortifications and the skill of the masons became more refined, the crenelations became more complex. In some regions a firing slit, known as an arrow loop, is added to the merlons. These arrow loops afford the archer increased protection because he does not have to step out into the open embrasure to fire his arrows. The inner section of the arrow loop has to be wide enough for the archer to be able to hold his weapon and fire downward and still give him some degree of coverage. To accomplish this, the position is wedge shaped and the loop itself is cut low enough to give a downward view. More sophisticated arrow loops in the merlons and the walls are formed as wedge-shaped recesses with two loops, which gives the archer two firing directions, thus increasing his angle of fire. Along the top of the wall, behind the crenelations, is the wall walk or allure, which allows the defenders to serve the battlements. In many cases, towers also have allures. Access to the allure and battlements could be by ladder or stairway, although the latter is preferred in masonry fortifications. In some cases the access stairways are located exclusively in the wall towers, which means that if the attackers manage to reach the allure, they would be trapped there, exposed to the fire from the courtyard and the towers, with no way down from the wall unless they captured a tower.

 

 Both tower and wall battlements are equipped with additional defensive devices known as hoardings. These wooden structures form positions that project from the wall in front of the crenelations and are normally covered by a wooden roof to protect the defenders. During the construction of the masonry fortifications, slots and supports are set into their walls and towers to accommodate the wooden corbels or beams and supports for the hoardings. The hoardings create an overhanging gallery that runs along the wall or around a tower. However, they do not always cover the entire length of a wall or go all the way around a tower. The hoardings have embrasures similar to those of the crenelations, which may also have included shutters. The hoardings not only protect the defenders from the elements and from enemy fire, but, most importantly, they also serve to protect the foot of the walls from the enemy. The wooden floors of the hoardings have openings from which the defenders can drop rocks or hot liquids on the attackers swarming below. When the base of the wall has a plinth, the projectiles bounce outward and can inflict casualties even on troops standing near the wall but not directly underneath the hoardings. The archers can also fire directly upon anyone below the hoardings. If a section of the hoardings is destroyed, the battlements of the walls still remain behind them. It is common that the hoardings are only temporary and set up when a site is under threat of attack. When the threat no longer exists, or the war is over, they are usually removed. The hoardings are temporary only in the sense that they are not intended as a permanent fixture. However, wooden fortifications can last for years and even decades, and there is no reason to believe that the hoardings could not last as long. The wooden hoardings may be replaced by two types of machicolations known in Auvergnian as machicoulis and berteche. Stone corbels are used to support these stone projections, which have the same role as the hoardings. In addition to merlons and embrasures, the stone machicolations include openings in the floor between the battlements and the wall from which the bottom of the wall can be covered. In general, the machicoulis covers a long section or the entire length of a curtain wall or tower. A second type of machicoulis, known as a machicoulis surarche, consists of arches that support the battlements. In this case, the openings are located between the top of the arch and the wall. However this type of machicoulis prevents the foot of the arch from being covered. To counteract this disadvantage, the foot of the arch is usually very narrow compared to its upper section. Mast machicoulis are open at the top, but occasionally they are covered by a roof, especially when they encircle all or part of a tower or span a section of curtain and are situated below the battlements.

 

The breteche covers only a small portion of the wall and looks like a box projecting from the wall or tower. Some breteches are open on top, others are completely enclosed, but most contain a firing embrasure or a small opening for defending and observing the environs of the castle and an opening in the floor large enough to throw projectiles on the area directly below. They are normally placed either above a window or doorway to project it. The first breteches were of wood, but now they are made of masonry. A feature that is very similar to the covered breteche and can easily be mistaken for it is the garderobe, which is not a defensive position but a latrine. In theory, it can be used to cover the base of a wall from its opening, but it is never placed above a window or doorway for obvious reasons. Additional firing embrasures for weapons like the bow and crossbow can also be found in towers at different levels. Windows, however, are a liability, and are not likely to be found outside the residential areas. Towers are virtually windowless because windows create weak points, jeopardizing the security of the entire castle. Only residential towers, like the keep, actually have windows. The most important windows have glass and the chapel windows are usually made of stained glass, while the others are small and often secured with iron bars due to how expensive glass is. Windows generally open on the courtyard or on a section of the wall that is well-sheltered from enemy fire. In most towers, narrow slit-like openings shed natural light on the stairways. Embrasures for weapons are long and narrow with space on the inside for the bow or crossbow, similar to those found in the merlons of the battlements. There is a wide variety of slits, depending on the purpose they serve. Some are cross shaped to improve the field of vision along with a oilet, a small circular opening to give a better view. Large round openings may also be added to the bottom of some slits to accommodate the use of cannons. Towers usually include some type of roof often composed of slate or lead. The roofs are generally tall and conical, giving the castle an even more imposing air, particularly after the masonry walls are painted. One advantage of the conical roof is that it protects the defenders from the weather when it is extended over the merlons. In many cases, however, the roof does not extend over the tower's battlements and not all towers have roofs. A roof damaged by the enemy’s artillery could also interfere with and endanger the defenders. Staircases in large towers are often made of wood and serve as access to all the floors. Circular stone staircases are found in towers or in corner turrets of the larger towers. Usually, the staircase turns upward in a clockwise direction in order to allow a man to fight with his sword in his right hand, while retreating up the tower.

 

The moat is undoubtedly one of the oldest features of fortifications. In its simplest form it is a ditch that serves as an obstacle meant to check the enemy’s momentum. In its more complex forms it presents a serious barrier even to the most formidable of armies. The moat is an integral part of fortifications throughout Aevos, beginning with the motte and bailey castle. Few fortified positions are found without a moat, unless they are located on high and rough terrain where a precipice precludes its need. However, even in rugged terrain, an effort is often made to include some kind of moat. At times, natural water obstacles, such as a river, a lake or a pond, takes the place of the moat. The moat does not always encircle the entire fortifications, especially if there are other obstacles. In some cases there is a moat both outside and inside a fortification. This happens mostly in fortified cities where an exterior moat protects the enceinte and an interior one covers the citadel inside the walls. The same arrangement is occasionally found in exceptionally large castles. The moat has to be deep enough to prevent a man from wading through it and wide enough to prevent him from leaping over it. The moat of the early motte and bailey may not have adhered to this principle, since its size depended largely upon the amount of material excavated to create the earthen and timber walls of the bailey and the motte. Generally, a depth of about three meters appears to be sufficient, though moats now are often deeper. Moats are rarely water filled because it is rather difficult to direct water into it, especially if no natural source is available. In addition, water that can be diverted into a moat can also be diverted out. Though in some regions, moats are almost invariably filled with water because the fortifications are built near natural water obstacles like rivers, lakes, ponds, or swamps, which abound in the area. Often, when the earth is dug to build the walls, the resulting ditch will automatically fill with water from the underlying water table. Although water-filled moats are considered very romantic, they are in fact rather unpleasant since garbage from the kitchens and human waste from the garderobes end up in them, turning them into giant cesspools. Whether dry or wet, shallow or deep, moats are further reinforced with obstructions such as sharpened stakes at the bottom and along the inner wall. Deep moats also present a serious obstacle to mining under the walls. Also without filling in the moat, the attacker is not able to assault the enceinte with siege towers or exploit any breach created by their missile-throwing artillery.

 

A fortified site always needs one or more wells to provide water for the garrison, especially during protracted sieges. It is also important to have a well within the keep. In addition, rainwater is usually collected in cisterns located in some of the towers of the fortifications. Water is not only essential to sustain the garrison, but also to put out fires set by incendiary projectiles launched by the besiegers. Hoardings and other wooden components of the fortifications are particularly vulnerable to fire and are often covered with wet hides or other fire-resistant materials. A reliable water supply is absolutely necessary not only to put out the fire, but to keep the wooden components wet and as impervious to fire as possible. The residence of the owner of the castle is usually located in a keep or some other tower-like position and usually occupies the upper levels. The great hall is usually the largest building in the inner ward or a large room in a great keep which could be used for banquets and entertainment for the noble and his entourage. It is the center of social life for the nobility serving in the castle and the population surrounding it. It is here that the lord of the castle holds court and adjudicates legal disputes between his tenants. The great hall is heated by a fireplace, which, until more recent history, consisted of a round or octagonal shallow depression located in the middle of the chamber where logs burned, giving off warmth and smoke in equal measure, and presenting a constant danger to the occupants. When the chimney flute was invented, the fireplace was moved to the side of the room and placed against the walls. In many cases the fireplaces on each floor are linked to the same chimney stack. Because of the hazard from the fire, kitchens are located in a separate building and the food is carried into the great hall for consumption. Tapestries decorate the walls and also provide some degree of insulation. Artificial light, provided by torches or candles, is necessary to make the dark chambers livable. In some cases a room with windows, known as a solar, serves as the family’s work room. A few larger masonry keeps have forms of sewage systems. Bath water is usually heated in the kitchens before it is carried in jars to the lord’s chambers where it is poured into a wooden tub. Garderobes are found in different locations and usually projected over a bild wall, like a window box. The garderobe is outfitted with a small bench with a round opening on the seat, which, more often than not, opened directly over the moat. Wherever a sewage system has been installed, the waste is born down to the lowest level of the tower, which acts as a large cesspool. About twice a year peasants will often have to clean out the cesspool.

 

Depending on the size and type of fortification there are stone or wooden buildings for the garrison. The barracks for a large castle usually consists of a two-story building with the stables on the lower level. Other structures include storage rooms, dairies, still-rooms, and so on. These are usually attached to the walls of the castle or in detached buildings in the courtyard. The courtyard or bailey is the main open area within a castle. A castle can have one or more courtyards, separated by additional walls. In the case of the castles with concentric walls, the narrow space between the walls is called list rather than bailey. Often the lists are used for jousting. When a castle has one or more baileys, they are usually referred to as the inner and outer ward or the upper and lore or even middle wards, depending on the layout. Castles also have one or more chapels for the lord and the garrison where Mass is said on Holy days if the lord is rich enough to have a chaplain. If not, a priest or monk may stop there on his rounds, which may take weeks or months. Often couples take advantage of the priest’s visit to get married. Prisoners are usually held in the highest room of a tower, from which it would be difficult to escape. The highest point usually is the keep or donjon, so the term dungeon became synonymous with prison. Though, when some prison cells are moved underground, that part of the castle becomes known as the dungeon.

 

A special type of fortifications is the bastide, which is a town used to occupy a border region. Kings will finance the construction of these towns and grant special privileges to those who are willing to settle in them. The typical bastide is laid out in a rectangular shape, ranging in length from two-hundred to five-hundred meters and has a grid-like street plan which includes the main road that passes through the center. Some of the larger bastides have irregular shapes. The funds provided for these towns cover the construction of a set of walls which are neither very thick nor very high. The bastides usually have no towers other than the two at the main gates. When feasible the entire settlement is surrounded by a moat. The settlers are expected to form a militia to defend the town and maintain the King’s hold on the region. A true bastide has no strongpoint in the form of a noble’s keep or castle, however, some noblemen build towns similar to the bastide next to their castles. Over time the term bastide has widened to encompass several types of fortifications, including wood or stone works built outside of the main defenses of a fortified city, or some types of field fortification or even small forts. Another type of fortification or even small forts. Another type of fortification used is the counter-castle, a temporary or permanent fortification erected by the besiegers in order to isolate the castle of the city under siege. Counter-castles are sometimes identified as towers or castles when they become permanent structures and their original purpose is forgotten. Often the besiegers surround their objectives with wooden and earth fortifications called bastilles. Fortified houses or maisons fortes have become popular among the minor nobility, who need to protect themselves against bandits. These fortified houses usually sport one or two towers. Fortified bridges are a commonality in Aevos, especially within the Empire since they serve as gates into fortified sites bordering a river. Some of the better-known bridges will have stone structures like towers and other assortments of defenses added to them. 

 

 

TO FULLY UNDERSTAND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CASTLE AND ITS VARIOUS FEATURES, IT IS ALSO IMPORTANT TO COMPREHEND SIEGE METHODS AND THEIR EVOLUTION. Siege methods are practically as old as fortifications themselves, since as soon as the first defensive walls went up, there was someone desirous to tear them down. Before tackling the enceinte of the fortification, the besiegers usually have to cross the moat. Small ditches serving as a moat could be quickly negotiated either with a good leap or with the help of a log or plank thrown across. If the moat was too deep or wide to be easily crossed or if it blocked the advance of the siege machines, it had to be filled in. If it was water filled, it sometimes had to be drained first. Filling in sections of the moat with dirt, rock, wood, huge bundles of sticks, and other materials was hazardous since it had to be done under a rain of projectiles coming from the castle walls. Once the moat was filled, the walls and gates had to be tackled next. The oldest type of siege equipment for this kind of operation is the ram. A heavy log carried by a small contingent of men was sufficient to bash in the gate of a smaller fortification. To deal with larger gates and sections of wall, the ram is usually mounted on a carriage. The most sophisticated rams consist of a tree trunk or large log slung from a framework mounted on wheels. The log is equipped with an iron head that prevents it from shattering as it smashed into the gate or wall. The contraption is covered with a roof of wet hides to protect its operators from the flammable materials raining down from the battlements. These mobile shelters with or without the ram are known as cats and when not mounting a ram they can be used to protect engineers engaged in other activities like working at the base of the wall or filling in moats. A smaller cat with a pointed iron pole instead of a ram is used to chisel away at the joints between stone blocks near the base of a wall. These cats also have other colorful names such as mouse, weasel, and sow, which is one of the most popular. The cat mounted ram was a long lasting prominent siege weapon. The besieged defended themselves from the rams by smashing them to pieces with heavy projectiles or with beams swinging from above. An efficient method of dealing with the ram is using a hook on a pole to catch it and overturn it. The simplest method of assault against a castle is the escalade, which involves the scaling of the walls and towers by means of ladders. The ladders have to be of sufficient length to reach the battlements. The attackers find themselves in an extremely vulnerable position while climbing the ladders since they have no other protection than their armor and have to depend on covering fire from friendly archers. If the wall to be attacked has hoardings, they have to be destroyed at the point of entry before the escalade can take place, otherwise the attackers will find themselves standing on the roof of the hoardings, presenting easy targets for the archers in the adjacent towers. In general, the escalade is faster than the ramming, and can be used in conjunction with other stratagems.

 

However, well-defended high walls makes escalades impractical or even suicidal. The solution to the problem is the siege tower or belfry. This device is a wooden tower built on wheels. It consists of several levels that can be ascended by the besiegers. The number of levels depends on the belfry’s height, which in turn depends on the height of the castle walls. At the top, or near the top of the belfry is a wooden drawbridge, which is dropped on the battlements as soon as the tower is moved within reach. The occupants of the belfry are then able to storm over the enemy battlements. More complex siege towers include an additional floor from which archers can fire down into the enemy positions. Some siege towers are even equipped with a battering ram on their lower level. Like the cats, they are hung with wet hides for protection. The building and transportation of these structures is no simple task. The greatest problem is moving these large structures across the moat and up to the walls in preparation for an assault. First, a solid causeway has to be laid down across the moat so the siege tower does not tip over under its great height and weight. The slightest unevenness can spell disaster for the besiegers. Once past the moat, the tower has to be carefully moved into position without toppling over in the uneven terrain surrounding the castle walls. Even the slightest incline could render the whole operation quite arduous if not impossible. All these painstaking maneuvers has to be accomplished under a steady rain of projectiles from the walls of the castle unless the defenders can be kept pinned down to prevent them from interfering. It is the task of bowmen, crossbowmen, as well as missile-throwing artillery to keep the defenders pinned down off the walls. Wooden or wicker shields on wooden frames known as mantlets, usually about two meters high and two meters wide, held upright by wooden supports offers enough protection to the archers to enable them to get close enough to lay down a barrage of arrows on a chosen spot. 

 

The missile-throwing artillery includes machines in use since ancient times. The ballista, a giant crossbow, is a torsion weapon that fires arrows called bolts on a crossbow, which has a devastating effect on the soldiers. Some of these bolts are so large that they can go right through several men. However, the ballista has almost no effect on the walls themselves. The catapult, also known as the mangonel, is another torsion weapon that’s been in use since ancient times. It consists of a beam with a cup for the projectile at one extremity attached to a frame, usually with wheels. The beams are winched down into a horizontal position, and, when released, spring up to a vertical position where it is stopped by a crossbar. The momentum catapults forward the projectile resting in the cup. Catapults are used in groups to lay down an effective barrage against sections of walls. These batteries of catapults achieve mixed results since they are low velocity and are not able to fire extremely large and heavy projectiles. Their maximum range though is about five-hundred meters, which keeps them beyond the range of enemy archers. The trebuchet is a missile-firing weapon of which its history may also go back to ancient times, though it’s much more vague. It consists of a long beam with a sling for the projectile on one end and a heavy counterweight on the other. The weapon varies in size and can hurl projectiles varying from forty to well over one-hundred and fifty kilograms, depending on the length of the beam and the weight of the counterweight. Trebuchets fire at a high trajectory and are such an accurate and destructive weapon that despite the invention of cannons, are still arguably the most effective form of siege warfare. When used in batteries, or combined with catapults they can place a devastating fire upon the enemy walls. Despite their low velocity, the heavy projectiles of a trebuchet descend from a high trajectory crashing down with devastating effect on masonry or wood. With a range probably slightly greater than the catapult, it was also safe from enemy archers.

 

A simpler weapon, sometimes confused with the trebuchet, is the perrier. It too consists of a beam with a sling, looking much like a trebuchet. However, instead of being set into motion by a counterweight, it relies on man- or animal-power to provide the force necessary to launch the projectile. Trebuchets come in many different designs and this may be why they are given a variety of different names. The defenders’ response to these weapons is to build higher walls, which, unfortunately, remains vulnerable to the trebuchet and to mining. As a result, walls became thicker. In addition to projectile-firing weapons, the aggressors also resort to mining to bring down fortification walls. In its simplest form mining consists of attacking the foot of a wall with picks and other tools under the protection of cats and large shields. The objective was to cut into the base of the wall in order to weaken its structure. Although the miners often dig from the shelter of a covered trench to protect themselves from the defenders, the operation is extremely hazardous. A more involved mining method requires a great expenditure of pure physical labor. The miners begin their tunnel from a covered position somewhere behind the moat and preferably out of the range of enemy missile fire and proceed to dig their way right under the moat to the foundations of the walls. Once they’ve reached their goal, the miners prop up the end of their tunnel with wooden timbers, fill it with flammable material and set it on fire. When the supports burn through, the mine collapses bringing down the portion of wall above it. However, this operation does not always meet with success. This type of mining is only practical in ground that is neither marshy nor rocky. The miners’ main fear is that the defenders might detect them and dig a countermine. The way to detect the miners’ presence is to set a small bowl of water on the walls or in a previously prepared countermine and watch for the water to ripple. Once the miners are detected, a countermine is dug to intercept them. The object of the defenders is to drive off the miners by smoking them out or by sending a small armed contingent after them. The mine is then destroyed. An architectural response to the mining is the plinth, which renders the base too thick to undermine or ram down. Curiously enough, the miners, whose job is not only arduous but also fraught with dangers such as cave-ins and countermining, are among the least respected contingents of the besieging force.

 

Defenders are not completely helpless against the besiegers, because they too have missile-throwing machines at their disposal. Ballistas are usually placed on towers and ramparts and are quite lethal to the besiegers, who are usually only protected by hide and wood contraptions. Catapults are normally placed in courtyards and are used with great effect against the enemy siege machines. The besieged also pour hot liquids, though oil is too expensive to pour over the battlements or through openings in hoardings or machicolations to stop attackers. To counteract incendiary weapons, besieged and besiegers alike rely heavily on wet hides to protect flammable structures such as castle hoardings or siege towers and cats. In addition, since aged human or animal urine is quite effective in dousing or retarding flames, large amounts of the liquid is collected and stored within the castle walls before a siege. Once the battle starts the urine is poured over the protective hides. The most recent siege weapon to join the arsenal is the cannon. Their original variants were too small to have any significant effect on fortifications. However, they have become increasingly more effective against weaker fortifications, where several extremely large guns may have a decisive influence on the outcome of the siege. It must also be noted that as castle and city fortifications improved to meet the challenges of siege weapons, especially the massed batteries of siege artillery, armies became ever better organized and equipped to deal with the more complex fortifications. Thus, development in one area feeds the growth in the other in an ever-rising spiral.

 

EA BYK ZWE ZANYOTSKER ZWEER EA TER PETRAVEZKER,

Linde Illena Kovachev.

[Cheese 8881]

Esfir wipes a tear from her eye and hangs the missive on the wall. She could not be prouder of her granddaughter!

[zuziee 4004]

Katya Kortrevich, the author's cousin, was busy going the fully naturalistic route but found time to admire Linde's practical engineering.